Work Motivation

Motivation is a state of being in which one is energized and is directing and sustaining their behaviour to a certain task. Motivation will affect whether someone chooses certain behaviour, how much effort they will put into that behaviour and how long they will keep on doing that certain behaviour. Motivation is one of three factors that lead to performance (the other two being ability and situation), therefore it is very important in considering employee performance and work motivation. There are certain theories of that can help to explain motivation.
1) Equity Theory:
One way of looking at motivation is through an equity theory. Equity theory states that people look at their job situation in ratios of input and output. Input is what people think they contribute to an organization. Outputs are what they think that the organization gives them in return. The ratio of ones input to ones output is measured by the worker. They then compare their ratio to another worker of the same position and knowledge as them. If the ratios are equal (they put in the same amount and get the same amount as the comparable worker) then they will not be motivated to change their behaviour. If the ratios are not equal, then the worker becomes motivated to bring the ratios of themselves and their co-worker closer to equal. If two workers put in the same amount of effort and get the same amount of pay - then the ratios are fair and equitable. If one worker puts in a full effort and gets a particular paycheque, whereas another worker puts in half the effort and gets paid the same then the first worker feels underpaid. If a worker gets paid more than other workers for the same job effort then they are overpaid.

When workers feel that they are underpaid then they will decrease their effort - in both quality and quantity. When workers feel they are overpaid, it follows that they should expend more effort and produce a higher quality, but this is not empirically supported. People are not motivated to fix overpayment inequity.

2) Reinforcement Theory:
This theory is based on the idea that behaviour is controlled by its consequences, Something that will reinforce a behaviour will increase the likelihood of that behaviour, and punishment are consequences that make behaviour less likely. Ratio reinforcement is when a person is rewarded for a certain amount of work (i.e., they write 10 reports, they get X amount of dollars). Interval reinforcement is when someone is paid the same amount on a certain schedule (i.e., BI-weekly) regardless of how much work they actually did. It has been moderately supported that ratio reinforcement evokes more superior performance than interval reinforcement.

3) VIE Expectancy Theory:
This theory states that motivation comes from a relationship between valence (the value or expected satisfaction of ones outcomes), instrumentality (the expectation that performance will result in a reward) and expectancy ( whether you feel that giving good effort will lead to good performance evaluation). Outcomes are any event that might result from a workers behaviour - praise, promotion, raise, co-worker ridicule. This theory provides a basis for why people expend effort. An organization can increase links between effort and performance evaluation and performance and outcomes, and can also provide more valued outcomes. This may lead to an increase in motivation.

As a manager one can increase expectancy by making sure that employees are able to do their jobs - they have the appropriate training, supplies, abilities and technology. Valence can be increased by managers offering appropriate rewards that their employees value and instrumentality can be increased by managers ensuring that the link between job performance and reward is clear and explicit.

4) Goal Setting Theory
Motivation energizes, directs and sustains behaviours - and goals can influence these three things. Behaviour is guided by intention, and goals clarify what needs to be done - they direct the effort and the energy. Goals keep a behaviour happening when combined with feedback. Performance will be best when:
* Goals are specific
* Goals are challenging
* Workers have the necessary ability
* Feedback is provided
* Rewards are clearly understood and provided
* Management supports goal attainment (i.e., provides necessary time and resources)
* Goals are internalized (become personal to the employee) and accepted by employees.
There is strong empirical support for this theory. Performance under goal-setting conditions is almost always superior to settings where no goals are set. This is very applicable in job atmospheres as employers can set challenging goals for every job and person.

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Group Dynamics: Basic Nature of Groups and How They Develop

Do Your Gathering a Group or a Team?

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD
This might seem like a silly question, but it is not. Gatherings of less than 10-12 people are considered by organizational development consultants to be a small group. Information in this section is most useful for forming and facilitating small groups of 10-12 people or less.
Groups that are larger than that range tend to have another level of complexity not apparent in small groups. For example, the nature and needs of larger groups are often similar to those of entire ongoing organizations. They have their own various subcultures, distinct subsystems (or cliques), diversity of leadership styles and levels of communication. While certain structures are often useful in small groups, they are absolutely necessary on an ongoing basis in larger groups. For example, larger groups should have a clearly established purpose that is continually communicated, and formal plans and policies about ongoing leadership, decision making, problem solving and communication.

Life Stages of a Team

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD
When developing a team, it helps a great deal to have some basic sense of the stages that a typical team moves through when evolving into a high-performing team. Awareness of each stage helps leaders to understand the reasons for members’ behavior during that stage, and to guide members to behavior required to evolve the team into the next stage.

1. Forming

Members first get together during this stage. Individually, they are considering questions like, “What am I here for?”, “Who else is here?” and “Who am I comfortable with?” It is important for members to get involved with each other, including introducing themselves to each other. Clear and strong leadership is required from the team leader during this stage to ensure the group members feel the clarity and comfort required to evolve to the next stage.

2. Storming

During this stage, members are beginning to voice their individual differences, join with others who share the same beliefs, and jockey for position in the group. Therefore, it is important for members to continue to be highly involved with each other, including to voice any concerns in order to feel represented and understood. The team leader should help members to voice their views, and to achieve consensus (or commonality of views) about their purpose and priorities.

3. Norming

In this stage, members are beginning to share a common commitment to the purpose of the group, including to its overall goals and how each of the goals can be achieved. The team leader should focus on continuing to clarify the roles of each member, and a clear and workable structure and process for the group to achieve its goals.

4. Performing

In this stage, the team is working effectively and efficiently toward achieving its goals. During this stage, the style of leadership becomes more indirect as members take on stronger participation and involvement in the group process. Ideally, the style includes helping members to reflect on their experiences and to learn from them.

5. Closing and Celebration

At this stage, it is clear to members and their organization that the team has achieved its goals (or a major milestone along the way toward the goal). It is critical to acknowledge this point in the life of the team, lest members feel unfulfilled and skeptical about future team efforts.

Some Types of Teams You Could Use

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD
There are many types of teams you could use in the workplace. The type you choose depends very much on the nature of the results that the team is to accomplish.

1. Formal and informal teams

These are usually small groups of employees who come together to address some specific goal or need. Management appoints formal teams, that is, teams that are intentionally organized and resourced to address a specific and important goal or need. Informal teams are usually loosely organized groups of people who come together to address a non-critical, short-term purpose.

2. Committees

Committees are organized to address, major ongoing functions or tasks in an organization, and the membership of the committees often is based on the official position of each of the members, for example, committees in Boards of Directors.

3. Problem-solving teams

These teams are formed to address a particular, major problem currently faced by the organization. Often, their overall goal is to provide a written report that includes recommendations for solving the problem. Membership often is comprised of people who perceive and/or experience the problem, as well as those who can do something about it.

4. Self-directed and self-managed teams

These types of teams are increasingly used where a) team members are working to address a complex challenge in a rapidly changing environment, and b) the strong ownership and participation of members are extremely important. These types provide great latitude in how members achieve the overall results to be achieved by the teams. The role of leader in a team might change during the team activities depending on where the team is in its stage of development (see below) and/or achieving is results.
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10 Psychological Keys to Job Satisfaction

Do you get a pleasant satisfied feeling after a hard day at work?

If some job satisfaction surveys are to be believed then as many as a third of us are considering a change of job. Clearly many are finding it hard to get that feeling of satisfaction from work.
Job satisfaction is important not just because it boosts work performance but also because it increases our quality of life. Many people spend so much time at work that when it becomes dissatisfying, the rest of their life soon follows.
Everyone's job is different but here are 10 factors that psychologists regularly find are important in how satisfied people are with their jobs.

1. Little hassles

If you ask doctors what is the worst part of their jobs, what do you think they say? Carrying out difficult, painful procedures? Telling people they've only got months to live? No, it's something that might seem much less stressful: administration.
We tend to downplay day-to-day irritations, thinking we've got bigger fish to fry. But actually people's job satisfaction is surprisingly sensitive to daily hassles. It might not seem like much but when it happens almost every day and it's beyond our control, it hits job satisfaction hard.
This category is one of the easiest wins for boosting employee satisfaction. Managers should find out about those little daily hassles and address them—your employees will love you for it.

2. Perception of fair pay

Whatever your job, for you to be satisfied the pay should be fair. The bigger the difference between what you think you should earn and what you do earn, the less satisfied you'll be.
The important point here is it's all about perception. If you perceive that other people doing a similar job get paid about the same as you then you're more likely to be satisfied with your job than if you think they're getting more than you.

3. Achievement

People feel more satisfied with their job if they've achieved something. In some jobs achievements are obvious, but for others they're not. As smaller cogs in larger machines it may be difficult to tell what we're contributing. That's why the next factor can be so important...

4. Feedback

There's nothing worse than not knowing whether or not you're doing a good job. When it comes to job satisfaction, no news is bad news. Getting negative feedback can be painful but at least it tells you where improvements can be made. On the other hand positive feedback can make all the difference to how satisfied people feel.

5. Complexity and variety

People generally find jobs more satisfying if they are more complex and offer more variety. People seem to like complex (but not impossible) jobs, perhaps because it pushes them more. Too easy and people get bored.
To be satisfied people need to be challenged a little and they need some variety in the tasks they carry out. It sounds easy when put like that but many jobs offer neither complexity nor variety.

6. Control

You may have certain tasks you have to do, but how you do them should be up to you. The more control people perceive in how they carry out their job, the more satisfaction they experience.
If people aren't given some control, they will attempt to retake it by cutting corners, stealing small amounts or finding other ways to undermine the system. Psychologists have found that people who work in jobs where they have little latitude—at every level—find their work very stressful and consequently unsatisfying.

7. Organisational support

Workers want to know their organisation cares about them: that they are getting something back for what they are putting in. This is primarily communicated through things like how bosses treat us, the kinds of fringe benefits we get and other subtle messages. If people perceive more organisational support, they experience higher job satisfaction.
Remember: it's not just whether the organisation is actually being supportive, it's whether it appears that way. The point being that appearances are really important here. If people don't perceive it, then for them it might as well not exist. That's why great managers need a politician's touch.

8. Work-home overflow

Low job satisfaction isn't only the boss' or organisation's fault, sometimes it's down to home-life. Trouble at home breeds trouble at the office.
Some research, though, suggests that trouble at the office is more likely to spill over into the family domain compared with the other way around (Ford et al., 2007). Either way finding ways of distancing yourself from work while at home are likely to protect you against job stressors (Sonnentag et al., 2010).

9. Honeymoons and hangovers

Job honeymoons and hangovers are often forgotten by psychologists but well-known to employees. People experience honeymoon periods after a month or two in a new job when their satisfaction shoots up. But then it normally begins to tail off after six months or so.
The honeymoon period at the start of a new job tends to be stronger when people were particularly dissatisfied with their previous job (Boswell et al., 2009). So hangovers from the last job tend to produce more intense honeymoons in the next job.

10. Easily pleased?

Some of us are more easily satisfied (or dissatisfied) than others, no matter how good (or bad) the job is. To misquote a famous cliché: You can't satisfy all the people all the time.
Still, some jobs do seem better suited to certain types of people. A lot of work has been done on person-environment fit but because jobs vary so much it's difficult to summarise.
One generalisation we can make, though, is that people get more satisfied with their jobs as they get older. Perhaps this is because the older people are, the more likely they are to have found the right work for them. There's little evidence for this but I'd certainly like to think it was true.
On my darker days, though, I tend to think it's because young people have sky-high expectations (which are soon dashed) and older people have learned to live with their lot, however uninspiring it is.

Why can't we all be satisfied?

When you look at this list of what makes for a satisfying job, you might wonder why everyone can't have one. With a little thought, most of the predictors of satisfaction can be provided.
The answer is probably quite simple. Organisations pay lip-service to keeping their employees satisfied, but many don't really believe it makes a difference. What this research shows is that it can make a huge difference.
If you're a manager looking to improve satisfaction at your workplace then start with point number 1: find out about people's little hassles and address them. It might not look like much but people will really appreciate it.

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